"Wings" Training Scheme.

An Introductory Booklet by Andy Ellison.

NAME............................................................

The Tyldesley Model Flying Club "Wings Training Scheme" was introduced in its present form to teach you how to fly your model safely and to give you a basic understanding of your equipment and its limitations The course consist of a series of progressive stages in a well established and proven training syllabus, and consequently. when you are ready for your flying test you will be able to undertake it as if it was just another flight.
To ensure that the ability of the Trainee is sufficient enough for him to adequately match the ability of the type of aircraft flown, and that persons flying docile models are not unnecessarily restricted by being force down a different training path, it is necessary to split models into two classifications.

CLASS 1.
For docile, easy to fly machines.

CLASS 2.
For less forgiving aircraft.

In order to define the two classes in terms of models, the Instructors have opted to define them as follows.

CLASS 1.
Will include Aircraft not fitted with Aileron control, and those of certain designs with Ailerons, as specified by the Instructors. (i.e. Powered Gliders, Vintage models etc.).

CLASS 2.
Will include Aircraft fitted with Aileron control which are not listed under Class 1, and those of certain designs with no Ailerons as specified by the Instructors. (i.e. 3 channel Mascots, Yamamoto's, High-boy's etc.). This classification allows the pilot to undergo training for, and to take a simple test for, the classification of aircraft he wishes to fly.

A listing of Model Aircraft designs is drawn up by the Instructors as they are flown, to classify models in either Class 1, or Class 2. Fliers passing the Class 2 examination will not be required to take the Class 1 examination in the event of them wishing to fly models in this class. Fliers holding the Class 1 wings will be required to fly with Instructor supervision if they wish to fly Class 2 models.

The tests are based on the Training Schedules for the particular class of aircraft, and require the pilot to perform simple flying tasks and to demonstrate to two Examiners that he is in full control of his model at all times and in various situations and attitudes within the ability of the aircraft. The tests are not designed to be flown as a set "pattern" of circuits and aerobatics, they are merely to demonstrate that the pilot can safely and competently handle the class of model for that test, and to demonstrate that he has a full knowledge of Pit Safety Procedures and Field Safety Rules. Thereby making him into an extremely competent and safety conscious individual whilst ensuring that the clubs excellent safety record is maintained. A copy of the current test schedules is at Appendix 3.

COURSE LENGTH
The time its takes until you are put forward by your instructor for your flying test will depend entirely on you. No two people progress at the same rate -some are ready in a few months, or less, while others may take a full season, or more. However, there are two factors that will help you speed up the process:

1. Liase closely with your instructor and mutually arrange to fly as often as you can. You were provided with a contact list of Instructors when you joined the club.
2. Ensure that when you come to the flying field, your aircraft and equipment are in proper working order, i.e. batteries charged, control rods and connectors checked and secure, etc. In addition if an instructors has spent time setting up your model, do not go away and tinker with it for the sake of something to do. An Instructor will soon get fed up with you if you repeatedly remove your radio gear or play with your linkages.

THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE TEST
The Examiners (2 of the clubs Instructors) realise that some people are simply not as good a flier as others, so they may slightly vary the format of the test to account for a particular individuals flying style, reactions, model etc. This may mean the possible exclusion of some tasks from the test schedule or the omission of continuous strings of manoeuvres; although candidates are expected to have a knowledge of all the items on the training sheet and should be prepared to attempt them during their training. "Straight Inverted" and "Cuban Eight's" are not compulsory in any test, and appear on the training sheet merely as an option to be taught on request. It must be stressed that the tests are not to prove flying excellence, moreover, they are a test of competence and ability to control particular types of aircraft, SAFELY and within the performance envelope of that type of model.
NB It is not the policy of TMFC to pass pilots through the Wings flying test on a basic full house trainer. It is expected that at this stage the Trainee has progressed onto an advanced trainer which is inherently less stable, and much more manoeuvrable than their first plane. Advice on a suitable second model will be given throughout the training programme, and it is not unusual for Trainees to be flying this model alongside their trainer by the time they are learning to take off and land.

WHAT, AND HOW YOU WILL BE TAUGHT ON THE SCHEME
The training program is run throughout the club by specially appointed Instructors. These Instructors will take the individual through many different stages of model flying from basic circuits to advanced aerobatic manoeuvres following a carefully designed and structure training syllabus.

You may feel at first that it is unnecessary to be taught the simple aerobatic manoeuvres included. These are there to not only allow a pilot to get the maximum enjoyment from his flying, but also to enable him to revert back to what he has learnt throughout his training to safely avoid an emergency situation should one arise. This could happen of course when there is no longer an Instructor by his side to advise him of the action to be taken.
Also throughout your training, you will be shown many other aspects of the hobby such as basic Pit Safety, Engine care and various ground training exercises. Your progress will be recorded on your own personal Flight Training Log (appendix 4) which is completed by your Instructor after very flight, and your Training record, which will be signed off at various stages by your instructors. These logs serve as a guideline for both Pupil and Instructor alike and allow them to chart an individuals progress on the scheme whilst at the same time highlighting areas of both excellence and areas where more work is required. The grading structure for the scheme is as follows.

N.B.
With the exception of Stage one and stage two which are progressive, an individual will not be eligible to have a stage signed off by the instructors or be eligible to take the final test, until they are repeatedly getting Grade B marks in the relevant items on the Training Sheet.

When you have been flying for a while and you are at a stage in your training where you can happily take off, fly circuits and land reasonably well, you will be entered for the BMFA 'A' Certificate. If you pass, the Instructors may then opt to supervise you from a distance, thereby allowing you to fly "solo". This will develop your own style of flying without having an Instructor by your side prompting you to do manoeuvres. You will of course, still be under instruction and will still have your log completed and kept up to date. Then after a while you will go back with an Instructor to iron out any bugs or bad habits you may have developed, before taking your test. This is a system that works extremely well in practice, allowing a pilot to build confidence in both himself and his ability, without unnecessary restriction of his flying time.

THE INSTRUCTORS
The Club has several members who are both willing and specially appointed by Committee to teach newcomers how to fly. Each Instructor has his own personal traits and you may find that because of this different Instructors may teach the same task in a different way. Accept this with the knowledge that no matter how you are taught it, the end goal will hopefully be the same. There are however a number of points which need to be emphasised to enable you to aid the Instructors in assisting you.

Firstly, your Instructors word is law when your aircraft is in the air. If he tells you to do something - do it immediately without question. The reason may not at first be apparent, and you may by all means discuss it on the ground after the flight if necessary, but obey implicitly whilst your Model is flying. Remember, training is a privilege.

Secondly, Wait your turn. Occasionally the system by which you are allocated an Instructor is varied to suit the Instructors on the field at any one time depending on how they wish to teach. Follow the example of others to ensure you get your fair share.

Thirdly, Be ready. An Instructors time is precious and may have to be shared between numerous individuals at any one time. Do not waste it by not being prepared for your flights.

Fourthly, you must not hold your Instructor responsible if the aircraft crashes during a test flight or at any other time. No responsible Instructor will allow your aircraft to crash if he can possibly avoid it and he will do all he can to prevent the aircraft from getting into a situation which could result in an accident. But he is only human and during your training there will be many occasions when you are required to fly near the ground when safety margins are very small (Take-off and Landing for example) so hard landings and worse are an unavoidable hazard of the sport. Accept these hazards, trust your Instructor and have confidence in his robustness of your aircraft.

In describing what he wants you (or the aircraft) to do, the instructor will say 'left' when he means YOUR left on the transmitter. For example, if he says 'Turn left' he will expect you to move your control to the left and consequently the aircraft will turn to its left - although it may not appear so to you at times! 'Up' and 'down' commands require no explanation.

But Remember This:-
The Instructors are not only there to help Trainee's, they are also there to maintain discipline on the flying field at all times. So even if you have passed the associated test, you are not exempt from being reprimanded if you begin to fly or act negligently on the field. They are also there to assist you further should you require "Advanced tuition" on aspects of flying not covered by the training scheme. And they do of course, wish to fly their own models as well.

AFTER THE SCHEME
When your training is completed and you have satisfactorily passed the required tests for your class of aircraft, you will be allowed to fly without any Instructor supervision. This does not mean however than an Instructor will not have something to say about your flying, nor indeed that you yourself may not approach an Instructor for further tuition on some advanced aerobatics for example.

Your Instructor will be only too willing to show you how to perform them properly rather than have you struggle un-safely, trying to learn them yourself. It should also be pointed out that the Committee of the club, constitutionally reserves the right to ask a member to rejoin the scheme should it be felt that his flying standard has regressed to a level below the minimum required standard. In this event the member must demonstrate that he can still perform the required test, and if necessary undergo instruction until the required standard is met.

The TMFC Wings Training Syllabus.

This syllabus is structured in such a way as to place the building blocks for progression onto the next stage. There are 16 stages from ab initio to flight test. The system of training is well established and proven within TMFC and many of your Instructors were taught this way.

Basic Aerobatics may be taught throughout the training course at various stages. It is not unusual for a novice progressing to stage 9 to be fully proficient in most of the basic Aerobatic manoeuvres. Stage 11 is included as a consolidation exercise for the manoeuvres learnt up to this point.

NB - You should be aware that whilst some stages of this syllabus may be completed in one flight, that does not set a precedent for the other stages. How long a Trainee spends at a particular training stage is very dependent on many various factors including, ability, type of model, attendance, weather conditions, Instructor availability. etc. Any Trainee unhappy with their rate of progression through the Wings training scheme is encouraged to take the matter up in the first instant with their Instructors.
Also if it becomes apparent that due to an absence from flying, a novice cannot perform a flight stage for which they have previously been signed off, it is quite permissible for the instructors to impose a regression so that a flight stage may be repeated satisfactorily.

Stage 1
Pit Safety. The Instructor will demonstrate the principals of frequency control, model set up, engine starting, the airworthiness check and introduce the trainee to the Club safety rules and national safety codes. He will also allow the novice time to read chapters 5 & 6 from the 'Up and Away' training manual

Stage 2
Introduction to flight. The trainee will be introduced to the basic principals of flight. The Instructor will demonstrate the basic components of a turn, straight and level flight, cruising speed, the effects of power increases/decreases, the functions of the basic controls and the extents of the available airspace. The Trainee will learn the correct way to hold the transmitter, and be introduced to the concept of proportional control.

Stage 3
Trimming / Basic Circuits / Figure eight's. The Instructor will introduce the Trainee to the concept of trimming the aircraft for straight and level flight and performing the basic circuit in both the left hand and the right hand directions. The Trainee will learn the principals of the effect of wind on a model and demonstrate the correct use of the throttle. The Trainee will also learn the correct method of flying figure 8 circuits and judge how to vary the angle of bank dependent on the wind strength and direction to hit certain key points as determined by the Instructor.

Stage 4
Circuit transition. The Trainee will learn the correct methods of transition from one direction of flown circuit to another. The trainee will learn to alternate between circuits at the first available opportunity without height gain or height loss.

Stage 5
Climbing, diving and Stalling. The Trainee will learn the principals of height gain and height loss through the correct use of the throttle and elevator. By the end of the exercise the Trainee will be able to double their height and halve their height in the same circuit. The Trainee will also learn the principles of slow speed flying near to and including the Stall. The Trainee will learn to recognise an incipient stall and the correct recovery from a fully stalled situation. The purpose of this exercise is to prepare the novice for take off and landing .

Stage 6
Taxiing. The Trainee will learn the basics of the first stages of take off, the taxi up to flight transition. Utilising the throttle and rudder controls to effect a steady, straight taxi run along the runway, the Trainee will develop the necessary ground handling skills to progress to the next stage. This exercise may be taught with the models wings removed.

Stage 7
Take off, climb out and manoeuvre. The Trainee will learn the skills required to transit the model from the taxi to airborne and into the standard circuit. They will also acquire the knowledge of actions to be taken in emergency situations and the best means of recovery from them.

Stage 8
Landing approaches and overshoots. The Trainee will utilise the skills he has learned to this point by performing accurate and co-ordinated landing approaches from various directions and situations. These will be aborted on the Instructors command and a full power overshoot effected to return to a safe altitude.

Stage 9
Landings. The trainee will discover that this stage is a natural progression from stage 8., Landings are usually performed from a perfect landing approach when conducting overshoot practice. This will then progress to practised landing approaches from various directions both powered and deadstick.

Stage 10
Solo Flight. The Trainee will perform a consolidation exercise of everything learned to date in their first solo flight. They will be under in-direct supervision of their Instructor who will be watching nearby. This stage is a major milestone in any pilots career and model flying is no exception.

Stage 11
Basic Aerobatics Consolidation. The trainee will consolidate and refine the basic aerobatics learned up to this point. These will typically be loops, rolls, Immelman turns, Reversals and the Stall.

Stage 12
Advanced aerobatics. The Trainee will be introduced to the concept of advanced aerobatic manoeuvres. These will include the Spin and recovery, Stall Turn, Inverted flight, Bunt and consecutive manoeuvres. Not all aircraft can perform these manoeuvres and this will dictate the actual content of the stage.

Stage 13
BMFA 'A' Certificate. The candidate will be tested by a BMFA Examiner to the standards set out in the Nationally approved training schemes of the sports governing body, the British Model Flying Association.

Stage 14
Indirect Supervision flying. This is a progression from the A certificate and should be regarded as a privilege. A candidate may be allowed time under in-direct supervision to consolidate their experiences so far. The length of time varies according to the individuals needs.

Stage 15
Review and practice. The Trainee will be scrutinised by an Instructor who will use the clubs training log to cover any aspects of the clubs flying test not yet taught to the Trainee. Further practice sessions will follow until the required standards are met.

Stage 16
Flying Test. The Trainee will undergo the appropriate club flying test under the scrutiny of two of the clubs Instructors. All Instructors present are consulted as to the suitability of the Trainee for progression through this stage.

THE NATIONAL TRAINING SCHEMES. (A CLUB POLICY).

In addition to our own flying qualifications, the club provides members with the facility to achieve the Nationally approved Flight Training qualifications. The British Model Flying Association Radio Control Power Achievement Scheme 'A' and 'B' Certificates.

Full details of the National R/C Power Achievement Schemes can be found within your B.M.F.A. Members Handbook. This entry is merely to inform you of the clubs' policy towards the National Tests.

When the National Tests were first introduced, T.M.F.C. decided that to adopt them as our standard of flying competence and safety, would mean a dramatic drop in the standard of training and therefore flying, as exhibited by our pilots. Many other clubs too were sceptical about the "Average" standard promoted by the scheme. The 'A' test also has its downfalls, and as a result many clubs have still not adopted it as their own . Chiefly because it allows pilots to fly "Solo" with aircraft that they are not completely competent with, the crux of the T.M.F.C. Wings Training Scheme.

The B.M.F.A. have however allowed clubs to incorporate the 'A' Certificate into their own tests, provided it very closely follows the 'A' test format and does not allow a "lower" standard of flying in order to achieve a pass, and this is the case within T.M.F.C.. If you confidently fly either of the T.M.F.C. tests with a B.M.F.A. registered Club Examiner, you will also achieve the 'A' Certificate qualification providing you successfully answer the required questions on the B.M.F.A. Safety Codes in addition to those required by the Club Test.
It has been suggested that if the club is not happy with the standard of flying set by the 'A' Certificate we should adopt the much more complex 'B' Certificate as our own standard. This however would take us to the other extreme and set the standard too high, as the 'B' Certificate contains compulsory manoeuvres not suited to some models or Pilots.
It is the clubs policy as a B.M.F.A. Affiliated Club to provide the training and examining facilities for the national schemes and make them available for utilisation by our members, but until such time as the club can agree with the B.M.F.A.'s "Safe Solo Standard of Flying" we should not lower our standards of flying and safety to meet an "average". Our beginners deserve and expect more than that. It should be noted that the club is actively involved, along with others in trying to impress upon the B.M.F.A. that their safe solo standard of flying is just not safe enough!
As a point of interest, any pilot coming to join our club holding any of the B.M.F.A. Certificates must expect to have to fly with an Instructor until he has satisfactorily passed the Club Test. This would be the norm at most other clubs across the country and therefore we are no exception.

As a point of interest it is the policy of the club that any Instructor must have attained the BMFA 'B' Certificate of competence and have also undergone testing to become a BMFA Approved Instructor. Both of these qualifications are the highest available for this post in the country.

The club also has the facilities necessary to test candidates on the BMFA Silent Flight achievement schemes if required and this will be indicated to suitable candidates throughout their training.

PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

GENERAL
Within any group of student pilots there will normally be a wide range of aviation knowledge and expertise. Some of the students might be licensed to fly full scale aircraft, others might have had some previous experience flying model aircraft, while there are bound to be others who have little or no knowledge of the subject. While this information might be of general interest to those who already have extensive knowledge of aircraft and flying, it is intended primarily as an aid for those students whose knowledge of the subject is limited. In this section we will cover the essential parts of an aircraft, the function of the main components; and the theory of flight from a general point of view.

PARTS OF AN AIRCRAFT

The essential parts of an aircraft are:

• The fuselage or body.
• The wings or main plane.
• The tail section or empennage.
• The propulsion system or engine.
• The undercarriage or landing gear.

Sometimes we will hear the term "airframe" being used. Simply the airframe is the complete structure of an aircraft, less the engine, instruments and ancillary equipment such as radios So let's take a look at each of these parts.

THE WING
Most modern day aeroplanes are monoplanes, meaning that they have one wing only. Among aeromodellers, however, biplanes (aeroplanes having two wings) are still popular.
The main members in any wing are the SPARS. These are beams that run the full length of the wing and are responsible not only for carrying the bulk of the load, but for providing stiffness to the wing to prevent twisting or distortion.
The airfoil sections that separate the upper and lower surfaces of the wings and give them their unique shape, are called WING RIBS. They also provide a surface on which to attached the covering. Quite often high wing monoplanes employ WING BRACING STRUTS. One end of each strut is normally attached to a bracket on the lower part of the fuselage while the other end is attached to the wing at approximately the mid-point. The purpose of wing struts is to prevent the wings from folding during flight by transferring part of the wing load back to the fuselage.
Bi-planes normally uses INTER-PLANE STRUTS as well as CABANE STRUTS Cabane struts are used to support the upper wing above the fuselage, while inter-plane struts are used to join the upper and lower wings, usually in the outer area of the wings.

• AILERONS are the movable control surfaces on the wing that provide control of the aircraft in the rolling plane. They are normally hinged on the rear spars and form part, or in some cases all, of the trailing edge of the wing.
• FLAPS are rarely used on radio controlled trainer aircraft, but on the other hand, are frequently incorporated in scale aircraft. Not so much for functional control, as full scale appearance. When used functionally, however, flaps provide better performance on take-off, and permit steeper approach angles and lower approach speeds on landing. Thus it can be seen that flaps provide both a lift and drag function.

TAIL SECTION OR EMPENNAGE.
The tail section, or empennage, consists of the fixed vertical stabiliser or fin, the rudder, the horizontal stabiliser or tail plane, and the elevator.

• The HORIZONTAL STABILIZER is the fixed airfoil mounted horizontally on the tail section to provide longitudinal stability of the aircraft.
• The ELEVATORS are moveable control surfaces hinged on the trailing edge of the horizontal stabiliser. While the stabiliser provides longitudinal STABILITY, the elevator provides longitudinal CONTROL, i.e., control in the pitching plane.
• The FIN is the fixed vertical airfoil located just ahead of the stern post, and is used to provide directional stability. Sometimes the fin is offset at a slight angle from the nose-tail line in order to compensate for the torque effect of the engine driven propeller and the corkscrew motion of the slipstream
• The RUDDER is the control surface that is hinged to the fin to provide directional control. Note also that while the fin provides directional STABILITY the rudder provides directional CONTROL.

UNDERCARRIAGE
There are two primary undercarriage configurations, nose wheel and tail wheel.
Aircraft employing a nose wheel are referred to as having a TRICYCLE undercarriage, while those employing a tail wheel are fondly referred to as TAIL DRAGGERS. Like their full size counterparts, most model aircraft are fitted with a tricycle undercarriage because they are easier to handle on the ground. For the student pilot, the tricycle undercarriage is normally considered the better option, because it reduces the tendency to ground loop and/or nose over during take-off, landing or while taxing. Aircraft are normally fitted with either fixed or retractable undercarriage. The undercarriage used on radio control trainers is usually fixed and made of piano wire (tempered steel spring wire). Retractable undercarriages are installed on most pattern aircraft, as well as on most scale models, where the full- scale aircraft employs retractable gear.

WHAT YOUR RADIO CONTROLS DO
On the transmitter the right-hand stick controls the elevator and the ailerons (rudder in 3 channel mode). Moving the stick towards you will raise the nose of the aircraft in level flight: moving it away from you will lower the nose. Moving the stick to the left or right will cause the aircraft to bank in the same direction and turn that way. These controls are spring loaded so that they always return to the neutral position when released. This particular stick is the equivalent of the control column in a full-size aircraft and is therefore often referred to as 'the stick'.
On the left-hand control stick, back and forward operates the throttle. This control is not spring-loaded but operates on a ratchet so that it remains in whatever position it is set.
Side to side movement on this control operates the rudder in the appropriate sense on 4-channel aircraft. On 3-channel aircraft (elevator, rudder and throttle), the rudder is sometimes connected to the 'aileron' control on the right-hand stick. Discuss this with your instructor.

Alongside each of these controls on the transmitter are sliding levers which are the trims for each control. What they effectively do is to alter the neutral position of the related control so that by using them when the aircraft is in the air you can cancel out any out-of- balance forces which make the aircraft tend to climb/dive or turn.

Get very familiar with your transmitter. Hold it as if you were flying and get to know where all the controls are by touch. When you are actually in the air there simply won't be time to look at the transmitter to find out where a particular control is located - and if you do you'll probably be unable to find your aircraft when you look up!!
Now, having told you all about the controls on your radio, lets see how these relate to the control surfaces on your aircraft.

Elevator. The elevator is used to hold the aircraft level. Backward movement on the stick will cause the nose to rise and the aircraft to climb, although not for long unless power is increased. Similarly, forward movement on the stick will cause the nose to go down and the aircraft will dive, building up a lot of speed unless power is reduced. So you see, the throttle and elevator controls effect one another to an extent. An increase in power in level flight will cause the aircraft to climb unless the stick is moved forward to hold the aircraft level, in which case the aircraft will fly faster. Similarly, If power is reduced the aircraft will descend unless the stick is held back, in which case the aircraft will fly more slowly. If you find that to hold the aircraft level you need a constant pull or push on the stick, you need to use the trim facility. Just move the trim lever in the same direction as the pressure you are using to hold the aircraft level until the aircraft will fly level with the stick in neutral. You will, of course, have to continue to make the necessary stick movements after trimming.

Aileron. The aileron control is used to keep the wings level when in level flight. The stick is moved to 'pick up' the wing which is down. You will find that if you can keep the wings level the aircraft will fly in a straight line. However, if you fly in a straight line for very long the aircraft will soon be out of sight. You must continually make turns and to do so you must use the aileron control - whether it is linked to the ailerons in a four channel aircraft or to the rudder in a three channel aircraft. Moving the aileron control to the side will cause the aircraft to bank in that direction. When the aircraft has banked about twenty degrees use the control to stop the aircraft banking further and to hold that steady angle of bank.

The aircraft will now start to turn, but it will also tend to drop its nose so be ready to apply a little 'up' elevator to keep the nose up. This will also help the aircraft to turn. To straighten out from the turn, simply bank the aircraft back until the wings are level (and relax the back pressure on the elevator) until the aircraft is once again in level flight.

Rudder. In the preliminary stages of your training you will find that you do not need to use the Rudder very often. It is however a primary flight control controlling the Yaw axis and will come into its own when you begin to taxi and take off. You will also be shown how the Ailerons can be substituted by the Rudder to steer your aircraft in the sky, and how the Rudder is introduced into aerobatics. If you have a four channel trainer you will soon discover that you do not need to use the rudder at all to turn - it is done entirely by the use of the ailerons and the elevator. With three channel aircraft rudder (connected to the 'aileron' control on your transmitter) is a primary flight control and you will use it from the outset. The control procedure is exactly the same, stick left and the aircraft will bank and turn left, stick right and the aircraft will turn right.

The reason why the Aileron and Rudder controls have a similar effect on you trainer is due to the high wing configuration and its associated dihedral.

The big advantage of having separate aileron and rudder controls comes when the aircraft is on the ground and it can be steered whilst taxiing by use of the rudder. The rudder may also be linked to the nose or tail wheel to give more accurate ground control.

Throttle. The throttle control determines the amount of power the engine is providing to fly the aircraft. Full throttle is used for take-off, overshooting and many aerobatic manoeuvres. Low throttle settings give glide, taxiing power and, with the trim fully back, 'engine stop' facility. Intermediate throttle positions are used for different conditions of flight and for that power setting which gives a pleasant, relaxed flying speed, neither too fast or too slow, is known as 'cruising speed'. The setting for this varies between aircraft, but is normally rather less than half throttle, and will be indicated to you by your instructor.

FLIGHT AND HOW IT IS ACHIEVED.

THE AEROFOIL
In order for your model to be capable of flight it has to be able to generate lift. This as you will learn is a force resulting from the movement through the air. On your model the lift is generated chiefly by the wing, and this wing is so designed as to enhance the effect of this generating process. The wing has an aerofoil section, the purpose of which is to produce lift. Even a flat surface is capable of producing lift, albeit very inefficiently. To demonstrate this, take a board and swing it at a straight angle to the air. Note that there is no lift generated; neither is much force required to swing it Now tilt the board slightly so as to swing it at a slight upward angle Note that the air hitting the board gives the board a slight upward lift. Also note that it now takes more force to swing the board. As the board is progressively tilted upward, the lift increases, but more and more power will be required to swing it. Once the board is tilted beyond a certain angle, lift will no longer be generated and a great deal of power will be required to swing it. This point can be related to the stall angle of an aerofoil.

From the foregoing we can conclude that while a flat board could be used as a wing, too much power would be required to overcome the excessive amount of drag created by it. Consequently, a more streamlined shape is needed. There are three general shapes of aerofoil used for model aircraft:

• Flat Bottom - This type of aerofoil is used primarily on trainers and slow flying aircraft Sometimes it is referred to as a cambered aerofoil, sometimes as a Clark-Y aerofoil.



• Semi-Symmetrical -This type of aerofoil is most commonly used on sport aircraft as well as on many Second World War scale models. It too is a cambered aerofoil.



• Symmetrical -This type of aerofoil is used on pattern and advanced aerobatic aircraft as it is especially suited for inverted flight. It has no camber.

LIFT
There are three main forces which act on the wing to generate lift.

• As the aircraft moves through the air, a high pressure air mass is created under the wing, which in turn tends to lift the wing.



• A low pressure area is created on top of the wing which tends to pull the wing upward. Since the air travelling over the upper surface of the wing has a greater distance to travel than the air passing under it, the air above the wing is less dense and thus at a lower pressure. Consequently, the wing is drawn upward into the area of low pressure.



• The downward flow of air at the wing's trailing edge also produces a degree of lift The air flow over the upper surface of the wing moves at a much faster speed than the air passing under it; therefore, when these two streams of air meet at the trailing edge, a downward flow of air results which produces an upward reaction on the wing.

From the foregoing, we can see why the lifting forces would be greater on a flat bottom or semi-symmetrical wing (cambered wing) than on a symmetrical wing (non-cambered wing). In other words, we can see that a cambered aerofoil produces lift at zero degrees angle of attack whereas the non-cambered aerofoil does not produce any lift at zero degrees, and will only produce lift when it is set at a positive angle of attack.

FACTORS AFFECTING LIFT
Four main factors influence the lift on an aerofoil. These are:

• WING AREA
• SPEED
• THICKNESS AND SHAPE OF THE WING
• ANGLE OF ATTACK OF THE WING

Generally speaking, the greater the wing area, the greater the lift, the greater the speed the greater the lift, the thicker the wing (up to a point) and the greater the camber, the greater the lift; and the greater the angle of attack the greater the lift.

7. FLIGHT
There are four forces acting on any aircraft in level flight.

• Lift
• Weight
• Thrust
• Drag

When an aircraft is flying straight and level at any steady speed, the four force's are in balance. i.e. lift equals weight and thrust equals drag. When these forces are in balance the aircraft is said to have reached a terminal velocity.
When an aircraft takes off, these forces are not in balance. At the start of the take-off run -the aircraft is moving slowly so there is very little frontal surface or plan drag -mainly just the drag resulting from friction as the wheels pass over and through the grass. At the same time, however, the throttle is fully advanced and the thrust is at a maximum. Consequently, the aircraft will accelerate as there will be more thrust than drag. When the pilot feeds in some up elevator, the nose of the aircraft will lift, increasing the angle of attack of the wing. The increased angle of attack will produce more lift than is required to overcome the weight of the aircraft and the aircraft will begin to accelerate upwards. Now we have a situation in which the aircraft is accelerating forward because thrust is greater than drag (i.e. it is gaining flying speed) and it is accelerating upwards because lift is greater than weight (i.e. it is climbing). If the attitude of the aircraft is not changed, the aircraft will continue to accelerate and climb until drag equals thrust. At this time, the aircraft will settle into a state of equilibrium.

Reducing the thrust will require an increase in the angle of attack of the wing if straight and level flight is to be maintained. If during straight and level flight the thrust is reduced, the aircraft will no longer be in equilibrium as drag will be greater than thrust The slower speed will reduce the lift generated by the wing, so more lift will have to be generated. More up elevator will increase the angle of attack and thus increase the lift of the wing The increased angle of attack also increases the drag with a corresponding reduction in speed These forces will interact until a new terminal velocity is reached and the forces once more are in equilibrium.

From the foregoing, it is concluded that there is a terminal velocity for each speed during level flight. For each terminal velocity the wing angle of attack will be different. And the wing's angle of attack will be greater at slower speeds than at higher speeds.

STABILITY
Earlier in this paper we discussed stability in a very general sense. We noted, for example, that the horizontal stabiliser and elevators combine to produce stability in the pitching plane; and that the fin and rudder combine to produce stability in the yawing plane Now we will take a look at some other aspects of stability which impact on how well our aircraft flies.

Any aircraft in flight is constantly subjected to a variety of forces that tend to disturb it from its normal horizontal flight path These include such things as rising columns of warm air, down drafts, gusty winds, etc which when encountered in flight tend to make the aircraft's nose rise or fall, a wing to drop or the nose to yaw to the left or right How the aircraft reacts to these disturbances depends on how stable the aircraft really is.

Stability is defined as the tendency of an aircraft, when displaced in flight, to return to its straight and level attitude without any corrective action by the pilot.

Stability may be classified as POSITIVE, meaning that if disturbed, the aircraft will return to its original straight and level attitude, NEUTRAL, meaning that it will maintain its last attitude without either returning to straight and level flight, or moving further away from it; and NEGATIVE, meaning that once the aircraft is displaced by a disturbance, it will move progressively further away from its last attitude.

In fact, negative stability is just another way of saying "instability". Obviously, as students we want to train on an aircraft that has lots of positive stability - aircraft that will practically fly hands off; an aircraft that for all intents and purpose will recover from any unusual position when the pilot lets go of the controls This is why a student should select a good stable aircraft on which to receive his training. After becoming proficient on a trainer you can move on to an aircraft that has neutral stability, i.e. pattern and other aerobatic aircraft. However, if you want to enjoy radio control flying, you should never build an aircraft with negative stability.

Appendix 1 - Glossary of Terms

LIFT - The upward force that causes an aircraft to fly.

WEIGHT - The gravitational force acting downwards on an aircraft.

DRAG - The force acting on an aircraft that tends to prevent forward motion.

THRUST - The forward force exerted by the propeller.

TERMINAL VELOCITY - When an aircraft reaches a constant speed, the thrust and drag are equal The rate of travel at this point of equilibrium is called the terminal velocity.

CENTER OF GRAVITY (CG) - The point through which the total weight of the aircraft is considered to act. The balance point.

WING ROOT - The inboard section of the wing, i.e. the section nearest the fuselage.

CHORD - The width of the wing measured in a straight line from the leading edge to the trailing edge.

MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD (MAC) - The average chord of the wing.

WING SPAN - The total distance from one wing tip to the other.

ANGLE OF INCIDENCE - The angle at which the wing, horizontal stabiliser, and engine are positioned on the blueprint or drawing by the designer. This angle is measured in relation to a reference or datum line.

ANGLE OF ATTACK - The angle at which the wing, horizontal stabiliser and engine actually meet the oncoming air during flight. The term is used almost exclusively with reference to the wing.

STALL - When the angle of attack of the wing exceeds the point where it produces lift, the wing will stall, or quit flying, and the aircraft will start to fall.

WASH-OUT - The "twist" purposely built into the wing so that the angle of incidence at the wing tip is less than the angle of incidence at the wing root. This causes the inboard section of the wing to stall before the outboard section, thus providing maximum stability and control at lowest possible speed.

WASH-IN - The reverse of wash-out Wash-in is most undesirable in that it produces instability, loss of low speed control and tip stalling.

TIP STALL - The condition that occurs when one or both wing tips stall before the rest of the wing. Such a stall is dangerous in that it usually results in an uncontrollable spin.

TORQUE - The force generated by the turning propeller which tends to turn the aircraft in the opposite direction. This force may be compensated for by offsetting the engine or the vertical stabiliser during construction of the aircraft, or by manually feeding in right rudder or right rudder trim during flight.

WING LOADING - The gross weight of the aircraft divided by the area of the wings In full scale aircraft wing loading is expressed as pounds per square foot. In model aircraft, however, it is expressed as ounces per square foot. i.e. the number of ounces that each square foot of wing must support.

THRUST LINE - The centre or datum line through the model's airframe.

Appendix 2 - Pre Flight check lists.

Before You Leave Home
Always check the following Support Equipment before you leave home:

• Fresh Elastics or Wing Bolts
• Spare Glow Plug
• Charged Starting Battery and Wire Clip or Glow Plug Driver
• Transmitter, Buddy Box and Umbilical Cord
• Spare Propeller
• Starting (Chicken) Stick or Electric Starter
• Screwdriver(s), Needle Nose Pliers
• Fuel, Fuel Pump and Tubing
• Paper Towels and Cleaning Liquid

• Wings and Fuselage - check for and fix loose covering and tears
• Propeller - check for nick or chunks missing, replace if necessary
• Wing Dowels - check for looseness or damage, repair if necessary
• Control Surfaces - Check all surfaces for damage or loose hinges
• Servo - Check if all servos are securely fastened to their mounts
• Servo Wheels - Check if all servo wheels are securely fastened to the servos
• Push Rods - Check that both ends of the push rods are securely fastened
• Fuel Tubing - Check for small tears or nicks, replace if necessary
• Landing Gear - Check that all landing gear screws and supports and secure
• Repairs - Ensure that repairs are completed at home prior to driving to the field

At the Field - Pre-Flight Checks
Before mounting the wings

• Receiver plugs check
• Battery plug check
• Servo wheel screw check
• Clevis to servo and clevis to pushrod connection check
• Aileron servos to aileron connection check
• Fuel tubing, check for kinked lines inside the fuselage
• Tank clunk, if visible, check to ensure clunk is free

With the wings attached

• Check for any pinched wires
• Check for alignment of all surfaces
• Control surface hinge check
• Control linkage to control horn check
• Check for nicks to the propeller
• Check landing gear mounts
• Fuel tubing check for punctures or tears
• Shake the airframe to make sure clunk is free

With the frequency peg on the board

• Check to see if all the surfaces are moving freely.
• Check to see if all the surfaces are moving in the correct direction.
• Range check the aircraft as per your radio manufacturers instructions.

Appendix 3 - Flying Test Schedules.

Wings Training Scheme - Class One Flying Test.

1. Carry out pre flight checks in accordance with T.M.F.C. / B.M.F.A. requirements.
2. Take off and enter a left or right hand circuit, and trim the aircraft for satisfactory straight and level flight.
3. Complete further left and right hand circuits to the satisfaction of the Examiners.
4. Complete a number of "figure eight" circuits with the cross over point in front of the pilot.
5. Carry out a Stall and recovery.
6. If your aircraft is capable of mild aerobatics you will be required to demonstrate these.
7. Fly a rectangular approach and land on the designated area, power on
8. Take off, gain height, fly upwind then perform a simulated deadstick landing on the designated area.
9. Carry out post flight checks to T.M.F.C. / B.M.F.A. requirements.
10. Correctly answer 7 out of 10 questions on the clubs Field / Safety rules.

NB
If the above test is completed to the satisfaction of a registered B.M.F.A. Club Examiner, the candidate will also receive the B.M.F.A. Power Achievement Scheme 'A' Certificate. Provided he can also satisfactorily answer a minimum of five questions on the relevant B.M.F.A. Safety Codes.

Wings Training Scheme - Class Two Flying Test.

Flight One

1. Carry out pre flight checks in accordance with T.M.F.C. / B.M.F.A. requirements.
2. Take off and enter a left or right hand circuit, and trim the aircraft for satisfactory straight and level flight.
3. Complete further left and right hand circuits to the satisfaction of the Examiners.
4. Complete a number of "figure eight" circuits with the cross over point in front of the pilot.
5. Carry out a Stall and recovery.
6. Fly a rectangular approach and land on the designated area, power on.
7. Take off, gain height, fly upwind then perform a simulated deadstick landing on the designated area.
8. Carry out post flight checks to T.M.F.C. / B.M.F.A. requirements.

Flight Two

1. Carry out pre flight checks and take off.
2. Fly standard circuits and on the command of the examiners complete inside and outside loops, left and right hand rolls, Immelman Turns, Reversals, Stall turns and spins to their satisfaction.
3. Gain height and fly a circuit at tick-over. Beginning and ending upwind of yourself.
4. Gain height, and at an upwind position stop your engine and land deadstick on the designated area.
5. Carry out post flight checks to T.M.F.C. / B.M.F.A. requirements.
6. Correctly answer 7 out of 10 questions on the clubs Field / Safety rules.

NB
If the above test is completed to the satisfaction of a registered B.M.F.A. Club Examiner, the candidate will also receive the B.M.F.A. Power Achievement Scheme 'A' Certificate. Provided he can also satisfactorily answer a minimum of five questions on the relevant B.M.F.A. Safety Codes.

Appendix 4 - Flight Logbook

   Flight Logbook - Word Format

   Training Record - Word Format